History 4 lesson 130

Abaham Darby was born in 1678 near Worcestershire, His great grand-uncle served in the English Civil war. He devised an early coke- burning iron process. Daby learned metallurgy coke-burning processes. Darby combined his skills, his uncle’s story and his own interests to invent the coke fired blast furnace. Darby’s iron smelting factory was more efficient than others. Coke: high in carbon and few impurities. His iron became competitive with brass, he figured out how to make iron thinner. He made cheap pots and pans,utensils and tools. Darby’s investors got scared in 1708 and left. In 1712 the Newcomen steam engine was invented. Orders came in from all over but iron production was constrained. Darby’s new factory enabled him to fulfill the orders and stay in business, Darby’s factory remained in business long after his death in 1717. 

Newcomen Steam Engine

Papin built the first piston steam engine in 1690. Tomas Savery built and patented a steam pump in 1698. Thomas Newmomen was an English Baptist ironworker. He built the world’s first true steam engine in 1712 Newcomen entered into partnership with Savery. Steam engines perform mechanical work. It used the vacuum to power the pump. Newcomen’s engine successfully pumped water out of mines. He marketed his engine through his network of Baptist business contacts. He met Joseph Hornblower through his travels and preaching. Horn Blower worked for Newcomen and built his engine. He passed the trade skills onto his son,who passed them onto his son.

Thomas Newcomen

Newcomen was born in Dartmouth in 1663. He became an ironmonger. He probably worked with Thomas savery on his engine (“Miner’s Friend.”) Savery and Newcomen got a patent together in 1707. Savery’s pump wasn’t too great, Newcomen improved it. Newcomen’s engine was a mederm marvel. It finally overcame the mining flooding problem. Newcomen’s job was ironmonger but his calling was pastor. Our job funds our calling. Newcomen’s work supported his preaching, his preaching increased his business.

The Octant

John Hadley was an English philosopher, He joined the Royal Society in 1717. His inheritance allowed him to do science. He grew interested in Newton’s reflecting telescope, HE built a superior model and then invented the octant. The octant distances between celestial objects. It was smaller and easier to handle. The octant could be used day or night. It lines up the sun with the hizon. The octant had overtaken the market by 1780 It was easy to read and more accurate It was available with many different options. Ot was capable of implementing the lunar-distance method for determining longitude. 

Gottfried Leibiz 

Gottfried Leibiz was born the son of a professor,he started college at 15 and published his first book when he was 19. By the time he was 20 he had 4 degrees and a law license,he went to work for the German government. Leibniz accessed scientific inspiration in France. The Leibniz was crucial for mechanical calculus. He invented calculus notation. He philosophized about symoliclogic, Leibniz was also a practical inventor. Leibniz gained reputation through government work. He demonstrated the mechanical calculator to the Royal Society in 1673. He visited England and met with Newton in 1676. Leibniz developed the first German scientific journal that popularized his ideas and others. The calculus controversy was started by Leibniz’s journal.

The Piano

Bart Cristofori invented the piano, he was a talented Italian musician and inventor. He went to work for the Medicis in Florence,Italy managing and creating. He finished his first piano in 1700, Its name comes from its Italian description:”che fail piano, eil forte”. The piano is a stringed instrument that uses keys to trigger a hammer. They are complicated devices that use simple machines to amplify your finger force. It is musically versatile: classic,jazz,rock, and so on. The piano teaches great music education. The musical spectrum is visualized on the keyboard. Cristonfori began selling his piano as medical weath declined and his blueprints were published and widely read in a journal. The design was improved as a result of Bach’s critical comments. Mozart then wrote successful piano music. 

The Thermometer 

The Greeks figured out that materials expand and contract. Galileo invented the thermoscope in 1593. They were applied practically. But they were sensitive to air pressure as temperature. The medicis devised an alcohol thermometer. The early thermometers had no standardized scales. Daniel Fahrenheit was born in 1686 and lived in the Dutch Republic. After his parents died, he became a merchant’s apprentice. He quit his job and took out a loan tomake his own thermometers. While was an outlaw he traveled and interacted with other scientists. Thermometers are sealed off from the environment, thermometers measure temperature. Their scale is based around the boiling and melting points of water. Thermometers offer practical benefits like weather forecasting and cooking. They are critical in industrial and power production prosesses. Fahrenheit saw that the Italian thermometers didn’t have standard scales, he decided we should base a scale on material properties. He published his temperature scale in 1724. He produced thermometers that both indicated the same temperature, his scale became the most popular in the world.

The seismometer

The chinese invented the seismometer in 132 AD. It took 1600 years for the idea to take root again this time in Europe. The pendulum was an object of growing interest by 1700 AD. Italian Nicholas Cirillo invented a seismometer that used a pendulum in 1731. Seismometers measure earthquakes. A spring-weight system detects surface motion. Modern seismometers incorporate electronics to improve sensitivity. Seismometers can prevent death due to tsunamis. They can also be used to predict volcanic eruptions. A series of earthquakes in Italy in the 1780s drove interest. They were disastrous to the economy. Salsano built a pendulum seismometer in 1783 to measure them. The most powerful earthquakes in American history struk in 1611-1812. Daniel Drake detected them using a seismometer modeled after Salsanos.               

Christian Huygens 

Christain Huygens was born in 1629 in the Duch Republic. His father was friends with Mersenne and Descartes. Huygens received a scientific education, he studied under great philosophers and received praise. 

He published his first book when he was 22 years old. Hugens discovered the rings of saturn in 1655. He invented the pendulum clock in 1650, he discovered the mathematical formula for centripetal force. He proposed the theory of light in 1678, he invented the magic lantern in 1659. His work ethic was motivated by his protestant upbringing, Heygens corresponded with mersenne and Descartes. He was well received in Paris in 1655 because of his family reputation. His family name opened doors early on, he was also friendly and likeable. Huygens became a founding member of the French Academy of sciences. 

Calculus

Europeans began advancing the ancient methods by the 1600s, John Wallis invented “infinitesimals” and aided the cromwell puritans. Meanwhile an important young man attending college in England in 1661, this young man’s name was Isac Newton. Isac Newton graduated in 1664 and discovered Wallis’s book about infinitesimals. Gottfriend Libniz and Isac Newton both  invented calculus at the same time. “Calculus” means a small pebble used for counting. It is the mathematical study of change. Differential: An acceler car has a “changing velocity (speed). Integral: adding small pieces into a whole. Differentiation and integration are opposite procedures. Calculus is used in every branch of science. Modern digital age founded upon calculus. Natural philosophers used calculus to investigate the universe. Calculus solved problems like Kepler’s. A dispute between Newton and Lebibniz over credit began in the 1690s. Ltlonital published a popular calculus textbook in 1696.

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Leeuwenhoek didn’t go to college, he was interested in investigating the quality of cloth. Cloth sellers used magnifying lenses to do that. He saw Hooke’s book on a visit to London. Leeuwenhoek began making his own tiny lenses. He is known for the microscope, he made his own microscopes. He discovered microorganisms while looking at lake water. He made several discoveries between 1674 and 1683. Leeuwenhoek never published a book, a doctor friend introduced him to the Royal Society. He wrote hundreds of letters about his discoveries. The Royal Society became suspicious of his claim about “small animals”, He became the center of microscopic discovery by 1700. A businessman not a professional scientist dominated a branch of science.  

Isac Newton

Newton had public life and a hidden one. Newton (1642-1727) studied natural philosophy in college. Newton abandoned Christianity. The Chinese and others practiced alchemy. Alchemy:using secret knowledge to attain self translation. Newton was an alchemist. Newton science provided an alternative worldview. The principia (1687) laws of motion and gravity. The laws of motion established classical mechanics. 1: Objects in motion tend to stay in motion, 2: P=ma, 3: for every action there’s an equal and opposite reaction. Law of Universal Gravitation inspired by a falling apple. 

Newton invented light and optics. He invented the first reflecting telescope. Newton ruled the Royal Society for 25 years. J.T. Desaguliers promoted Newton through public lectures. He also co-founded modern Freemasonry. During the 1770s 25% of the Royal Society were masons. The Freemasons played a crucial role in launching the American Revolution.               

Mercury Barometer 

Through Galileo Torricell became interested in the problem. The problem was that miners had trouble pumping weather out of mines. Torricell built a model in his backyard and it drew attention. He substituted mercury for water and invented the mercury harometer.                                                                           

Barometers measure atmospheric pressure. It consists of a tube and a dish full of mercury. Mercury is a dense liquid metal. A vacuum appears at the top of the tube. The level changes along with the air pressure. The barometer helps us predict the weather. Torricelli wrote a letter about the device to his friend Ricci, in Rome. Ricci sent Torricelli’s letter to Mersenne in France and Mersenne sent Torrielli’s letter to Pascal. Then Pascal asked his relative to take the barometer up a mountain. His relative agreed and he did it along with several important local people. 

Pendulum Clock

 Christian Huygens was born in 1629 in the Ductch Republic. He learned of the pendulum through Galieo’s insights. The pendulum is “isochronous” determined by its length. Huyges completed what Galileo Started and invented the first pendulum clock. The pendulum clock removed old design defects. It reduced clock error down to 15 seconds per day. Short swings are more accurate than long ones. The minute hand appeared by 1690. The pendulum regulates the escapent’s energy release. The pendulum releases one gear tooth per swing. The escapement powers the pendulum. The pendulum clock spread quickly. An improved escapement mechanism was invented in 1675. George Graham popularized the device through  clockmaker Thomas Tompion. Thompson’s High-quality workmanship was the result of the protestan work ethic.

Robert Boyle

Robert Boyle was born in 1627 and studied Galileo’s work. He became a member of the Invisible college to conduct scientific investigation. He learned of the vacuum pump in 1657. Boyle transitioned alchemy to chemistry. He believed in science as a way to glorify God. He published a ground-breaking book, The Skeptical Chemist. He rejected the Greek view of four. He proposed an alternative: matter made of atoms. Ancient Greek philosophers and similar ideas studied the philosophical idea but didn’t do the science. 

Boyle’s Christian faith gave him confidence to explore the concept. The cultural differences explain the success or failure of ideas in different times. Boyle’s influence was established through the Invisible college I became the Royal society a prestigious institution of early scientists. King Charles II provided funding after 1660. Boyle almost became the president in 1680. The Royal Science to help mankind.             

Merenne’s Laws

Mersenne was born in 1558 in France and corresponded with prominent scholars after 1620. He was interested in protecting against occult influences. Merenne pursued the mathematical basis of acoustics without getting confused. Audible sound vibrates at a certain frequency. Mersenne’s laws tell how to tune a string instrument. Longer strings play lower notes, tighter strings play higher notes and heavier strings play lower notes. Mersenn gets the credit even though he didn’t come up with the idea. Galileo had the idea but didn’t think they could be proven but since Mersenne published his findings he got the credit. He spread them using the large network he had built over time. 

Cartesian Coordinates 

Descartes was born in France in 1596. He was educated by jesuits.  He joined the Duthch army and developed a thirst to systematize mathematical physics. He was a chistian who believed our reason was founded on God’s existence. His coordinate system was published in 1637. Cartesian coordinates let you graph coordinates on a plane. Descartes invented the modern algebraic notation. His coordinate system allows the platting of geometric shapes in algebraic notation: x2+y2=4 (circle.) Cartesian coordinates united algebra and geometry. Electrical quantities can be represented. Mathematics are man-made. Symbols and rules that incredibly conrespond. Descartes wasn’t the only person to invent the idea but the credit goes to Descartes because he published the idea. Mersenne’s scholarly not work helped spread Descartes ideas. Descartes’ system was initially a single axis. The Duch added the second axis when translating the book. 

Mechanical Calculator

Blaise pascal was born in France in 1623. His family’s wealth suffered ups and downs. His father became a tax collector for the king of France. Paslal observed the repetitive calculations he had to do. Pascal wanted to alleviate his dad’s burdes. He designed a special “carry” mechanism. His sautor linked wheels together automatically as one turned over from 9 to 0. It consisted of input wheels and display windows. Pascal’s machine wasn’t the first built but he gets the credit.

Blaise Pascal

  Blaise pascal was born in France in 1623 Pascal was a child prodigy gifted in math. His father took him to Mersenne’s meeting. He invented the mechanical calculator to help his father. He experienced a kind of religious conversion when he was 23. Pascal is best known for pascal’s law. He investigated the concept of the vacuum. He got involved with experiments associated with the invention of the barometer. Pascal laid the foundations of probabilistic theory. He wrote influential books. Pascal’s influence spread throughout Mersenne’s network. He died when he was just 39     

 

Johannes Kepler

Kepler was born in 1571 in the Holy Roman Empire his grandfather was a mayor and his father a mercenary. His mom took him to see a comet when he was six years old. He almost became a minister but moved to astronomy instead. Kepler viewed the universe as an analogy of the Trinity. His first book established his reputation and astronomy skills. It helped introduce him to Tycho Brahe. Kepler worked with Tycho for a year. 

Tycho died and Kepler was appointed his successor. His book on the orbit of mars was published in 1609. Kepler’s best known for his three laws of planetary motion. Kepler sent copies of his books to important astronomers. His laws weren’t immediately received. Galileo was a little cool towards Kepler because of Kepler’s astrological tendencies. 

Galileo Galilei 

Galileo’s father was a talented musician and he investigated the chord construction. Galileo learned how to do early science from his dad. He wanted to become a priest but his father convinced him to be a physician. By accident he took a geometry class and became interested in astronomy. Galileo was a bioner and also controversial He designed a new military compass and thermometer. He improved the telescope in 1609. Galileo applied mathematics to physics. Before there were appeals to Aristotle’s authority: Aristotle said. He was caught up in the “Galileo Affair” with the Roman catholic church for being critical of Aristotelian philosophy. 

The side Rule 

John Napier invented the logarithm in 1614. He did it to help sailors and astronomers. Napier’s book was a table full of logarithms. The slide rule was invented in 1630. The slide rule makes it easier to multiply and divide It also does away with the book of tables. The middle strip out between the top and bottom strips. More complex rules add more features. It quickly became popular Kepler used logarithms to produce his enhanced star charts but the calculations took a while. The slide rule in 1630 and made them faster. Improved models were continually developed.

John Napier 

John Napier was born in Edinburgh,Scotland (1550). He entered the university at 13 and became interested in theology. He applied his inventiveness to his estate. Napier applied his creativity to mathematics. Napier’s greatest achievement was inventing the logarithm. His motivation was to serve others. His commentary on Revelation was also important. He wanted to persuade Scotland to resole Catholicism. Napier’s “Bones” were popular tools that simplified calculations. He calculated ten million logarithms for his book. Napier explained the benefits of the logarithm through simple examples. The book caught the attention of a prominent English professor.   

The Compound Microscope

Optics began with Plato and Aristotle It was advanced in the Islamic Golden Age. Arabic Treatises permeated European universities after 1088 AD. Robert Grossest and Bacon promoted scientific interest in light. Compound microscopes use multiple lenses to produce magnification. A magnifying glass is a simple microscope. Compound microscopes generate 1000 xt magnification. It uses objective and eyepiece lenses They are useful for enlarging “ invisible” specimens. A handful of conflicting intention claims arose by the Duch around 1509. Galileo invented an improved telescope in 1609. By 1624 Galileo had developed his own compound Galileo was responsible for the microscope’s name. Antoine Van Leev Wenheek popularized the and became the “father of microbiology.

William Gilbert

       

Gilbert was born in 1540 in England Gilbert served the queen and deviated his time to magnetic experimentation. Gilbert’s 1600 book De Magnete was his big contribution. He resurrected scientific interest in magnetism. He created a spherical magnet as a model of earth for his experiments. He introduced consent of “attractive force.”  His book profoundly impacted the western world; his book influence Galileo and several popular English writers. It promoted the copernican cosmological.

             

 The Newspaper 

The printing press made it cheap to reach the masses.  Martin Luther used the printing press to spread the Reformation. The protestantants out printed the Roman catholics. Printers wanted to sell protestant reading material because it was profitable. Cultures determine the impact of an invention. Newspapers quickly transmit information. Printed words are more reliable than word-of-mouth. Popular topics: wars, foreign relations, and gossip. News papers are published frequently and they make money by selling advertising. Publishers got experience during the Reformation. The first newspaper began in Germany in 1605. 

The Telescope 

The Greek and Romans knew of lenses. Robert Grosseteste investigated vefaction. Eyeglasses were invented by 1300 by 1600 the Duthch were making lenses. Hans Lipperhey invented the  telescope in 1608. Telescopes magnify for away objects. They improve our ability to peer into the cosmos. The telescope spread quickly because of cultural interest in astronomy.  

Mercator Projection map 

Map-making began early in  history. The Greeks and Scripture viewed the world as a sphere. Major improvements developed at Alexandria around 225 BC. European maps in the middle Ages were more symbolic. They were helpful for sailing near land but not in the open ocean. The mercator projection map was very useful for sailors It simplified sailing with a compass. The mercator projection map was an important advance that took 100 years to become popular. It  combined geographic details and practical sailing charts. The mercator projection map removed the need to memorize rules of thumb.

      Mercator 

Gerardus Mercator was born in 1512. Mercator went to school to become a priest. At the university he experienced a crisis of faith studying Aristotle. Aristotle contradicts christanity but the Roman catholic church supported Aristotle’s philosophy. Contrading Aristotle was almost considered heresy. The same problems that Mercater faced in the university are still with us today. Mercator sought counsel from an older monk who had been through something similar. Francis the monk ( the older monk) helped salvage Mercator’s faith. It also introduced Mercator to globe-making and promised him a career. Mercator is known for the mercator is known for the Mercator projection and the atlas. The world atlas contained maps and christian commentary. Mercator wrote commentaries on the Bible and he experienced religious persecution. Mercator became famous during his lifetime.  His atlas wasn’t the first to be published even though it became the standard.

Tycho Brahe 

Tycho Brahe was born into Danish nobility. Raised by his uncle he went to school and studied Aristotle. Watching an eclipse when he was 13 years old sparked his interest in astronomy. He wanted to improve the accuracy of astronomical predictions. He returned home and committed to becoming a full time scientist. This helped booster the copernican model of the universe. He built his own instruments to develop greater measurement accuracy. He created a compromise model that preserved his Biblical interpretation. Tycho’s geo-heliocentric model briefly became popular. It was a comfortable compromise for astronomers. Tycho also won the support of the elite like King Frederick ll. Tycho developed horoscopes for rich people and he debated other scholars about their theories.          

The backstaff 

Economic growth engaged England in the Age Of Discovery. Marco polo helped fuel interest in finding the Northwest passage. It was another route to the East. John Davis persuaded Queen Elisabeth into fuding his expedition to find it. Davis became a master mariner and invented the backstaff. The backstaff determines the sun’s altitude without you having to look into the sun. It casts a shadow as the marking line. The backstaff had improvements over time.       

Heliocentric Theory 

The ptolemaic model believed the heavens revolved around the Earth. Aristotle believed the stars and plants were divine moving in perfect circles. Ptolemy had to modify Aristotle’s ideal model to match observations. Ptolemy’s was founded upon Aristotle’s faith. It was physically wrong but accurately predicted orbits. Moslim scholars began criticizing ptolem’s models. Nicholaus copernicus devised the heliocentric theory by 1543. The heliocentric theory was accurate in its  predictions AND physically correct. It revealed the actual structure of the solar system. Space exploration requires exact knowledge of planetary positions. The theory of copernicus was slow to catch on.

Nicholas Copernicus

Nicholas Copernicus was born in Poland in 1473. Copericus developed an interest in astronomy in school. He grew fascinated by the contradictions between Aristotle and Ptolem’s model. At Bologna he observed discrepancies with the model. His theory’s first draft was completed in 1514. His insight didn’t come from Renaissance literature. Cpernicus christen faith provided the basis for the scientific revolution. He believed science was possible because God sustains the universe. He thought a more simple design was the sun at the center. He also made numerous other measurements and astronomical discoveries. He had diverse interests but specialized in astronomy. 

Andreas Veralius 

    

Andreas Vernalius was born in 1514 in Brussels. His father, grandfather, and great grandfather were doctors for the German emperor. He began college in the Netherlands but moved to Paris and became interested in anatomy. He learned of Galen and his critics. A major insight: Galen’s knowledge based on animals not people. No one had checked Galen’s work in 1300 years. Vesalius published a crucial treatise on anatomy in 1543. It gives detailed descriptions of the entire human body. Vesalius innovated: he did what doctors before him thought was beneath them. He provided critical and conductive criticism of anatomical knowledge.

Pencil 

Writing instruments go back to the dawn of mankind. The Romans used an “erasable” wax tablet. Erasable tablets were cheaper than ink and parchment. A large graphite mine was discovered in England. The wooden encasement was developed in 1560 and the modern pencil-making techniques arose by 1600. Pencils are graphite rods eneuced in wood. Pencils make durable markings. They are cheap to make and use. Pencils offer benefits to artists. Artists immediately grasped the benefits of the pencil. The use of graphite in making cannonballs gave the English military advantages. King Henry VII took control over the mine and revicted access. England gained a world monopoly on pencil making.           

Mariner’s Astrolabe

  The interest in sailing prompted the design of better instruments like the cross staff helped determine latitude but it had drawbacks. The quadrant was also used but was too sensitive. The portuguese founded nautical schools dedicated to sailing in the early 15th century. Those schools led to developments in sailing instruments. The mariner’s astrolabe addressed two problems: ocean motion and wind. It is made of heavy brass with slots cut in its center. It was a two-handed instrument used to read angles above the horizon. It was combined with ancient star charts to determine latitude. 

Double-Entry Bookkeeping

The Romans had sophisticated accounting techniques. Europe slowly recovered after Romans had sophisticated accounting techniques. Europe slowly recovered after Rome’s collapse. Italy recovered faster due to its closeness to the Pope. As the merchant economies became money-based and accelerated more sophisticated methods were needed. Double-entry bookkeeping enters each transaction. Double-entry bookkeeping keeps everything balanced. Two entries must be made for everyone tradsction. Being the victim of theft reduces your equity. Luca Pacioli’s book was a commercial success within the merchant class. Double-entry bookkeeping protects you from theft. It raises the price to steal from a shrewd business. Most criminals are stuped and can’t defeat the system. Its benefits increase your wealth and protect you from theft.

Luca Pacioli 

Luca pacioli gained an interest in math and arithmetic from an early age. He moved to Venice when he was 20. He became a friar when he was about 30. Luca taught math and arithmetic at numerous universities. He returned to his hometown just before he turned 50 and wrote his most famous book. Luca’s most famous book is a practical business handbook. It wasn’t original except in how it compiled all the knowledge of the day. He wrote about the application of math and geometry to art and architure. He wrote about chess with illustrations by Leonardo da vinci. Pacioli was invited to milan in 1496 where he met Leonardo da vinci. Pacioli moved to Florence and taught geometry at the university in 1500. His book benefited from the recently invented printing press. He wrote clearly which made his books popular. Pecioli’s biggest impact is the popularization of double-entry accounting. He made mistakes but they led to further discoveries. 

Leonado da Vinci

Leonardo was the son of a rich government official and had 12 siblings. He received an informal education in Latin, geometry,and math as a child . He apprenticed under a master painter in Florence when he was 14. He was a master painter by the time he was 20. He was being paid to paint by his late 20’s. He was a naturally gifted child who couldn’t focus. He drew a lot and paid attention to the details. He became a military engineer. He understood mechanics and drew detailed designs for inventions. His most famous works are The Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. He gained early renown for collaborating on The Baptism of Christ. He was supported by the Duke of Milan through 1499. He was supported by the king of France after 1562. Da Vinci is described as a “Renaissance Man”. A renaissance man is supposed to have diverse Knowledge and skills. Da Vinci was a talented artist but not a good investor. He struggled to finish the projects he started. He is mostly remembered for The Mona Lisa.