Christian Huygens 

Christain Huygens was born in 1629 in the Duch Republic. His father was friends with Mersenne and Descartes. Huygens received a scientific education, he studied under great philosophers and received praise. 

He published his first book when he was 22 years old. Hugens discovered the rings of saturn in 1655. He invented the pendulum clock in 1650, he discovered the mathematical formula for centripetal force. He proposed the theory of light in 1678, he invented the magic lantern in 1659. His work ethic was motivated by his protestant upbringing, Heygens corresponded with mersenne and Descartes. He was well received in Paris in 1655 because of his family reputation. His family name opened doors early on, he was also friendly and likeable. Huygens became a founding member of the French Academy of sciences. 

Calculus

Europeans began advancing the ancient methods by the 1600s, John Wallis invented “infinitesimals” and aided the cromwell puritans. Meanwhile an important young man attending college in England in 1661, this young man’s name was Isac Newton. Isac Newton graduated in 1664 and discovered Wallis’s book about infinitesimals. Gottfriend Libniz and Isac Newton both  invented calculus at the same time. “Calculus” means a small pebble used for counting. It is the mathematical study of change. Differential: An acceler car has a “changing velocity (speed). Integral: adding small pieces into a whole. Differentiation and integration are opposite procedures. Calculus is used in every branch of science. Modern digital age founded upon calculus. Natural philosophers used calculus to investigate the universe. Calculus solved problems like Kepler’s. A dispute between Newton and Lebibniz over credit began in the 1690s. Ltlonital published a popular calculus textbook in 1696.

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Leeuwenhoek didn’t go to college, he was interested in investigating the quality of cloth. Cloth sellers used magnifying lenses to do that. He saw Hooke’s book on a visit to London. Leeuwenhoek began making his own tiny lenses. He is known for the microscope, he made his own microscopes. He discovered microorganisms while looking at lake water. He made several discoveries between 1674 and 1683. Leeuwenhoek never published a book, a doctor friend introduced him to the Royal Society. He wrote hundreds of letters about his discoveries. The Royal Society became suspicious of his claim about “small animals”, He became the center of microscopic discovery by 1700. A businessman not a professional scientist dominated a branch of science.  

Isac Newton

Newton had public life and a hidden one. Newton (1642-1727) studied natural philosophy in college. Newton abandoned Christianity. The Chinese and others practiced alchemy. Alchemy:using secret knowledge to attain self translation. Newton was an alchemist. Newton science provided an alternative worldview. The principia (1687) laws of motion and gravity. The laws of motion established classical mechanics. 1: Objects in motion tend to stay in motion, 2: P=ma, 3: for every action there’s an equal and opposite reaction. Law of Universal Gravitation inspired by a falling apple. 

Newton invented light and optics. He invented the first reflecting telescope. Newton ruled the Royal Society for 25 years. J.T. Desaguliers promoted Newton through public lectures. He also co-founded modern Freemasonry. During the 1770s 25% of the Royal Society were masons. The Freemasons played a crucial role in launching the American Revolution.