Pencil

Earliest forms of writing were on clay tables, Greeks and Romans used wax tables they were erasable. A unique graphite mine was discovered in England in 1500 AD. England gained a monopoly over pencil-making. Nicolas Jacques Conte invented the modern pencil as an alternative to Britain’s. Pencils are graphite rods encased in wood. Pencils make durable markings. They are cheap to make and use. Pencils offered benefits to artists. Conte pencil dominated Europe. But it didn’t spread to America. John Thoreacu manufactured pencils in Massachusetts in the 1820s. His pencils were inferior to Conte’s. John’s son, Henry independently invented the same pencil that Conte had 15 years earlier.

Stethoscope

Rene Lannec was born in 1781 in France, he was sick as a child. He trained under great French doctors, he had several interests related to sound. He invented the stethoscope in a Eureka! Moment in 1816. Stethoscopes let us listen to sounds inside our body. The chest piece captures a sound wave. They traveled through air tubes into our eardrums. Electronics enhanced stethoscope features. We can listen to heartbeat, blood flow, and lunges. Laenec used his stethoscope with autopsies. He published a book in 1819. Lanennec wasn’t roo critical of the existing (inferior) methods. His invention spread quickly throughout Europe. The modern design emerged in 1852. 

Tunneling Shield

Marc Isambard Buried, was born in France in 1769, he fled to France to escape the murderous reign of Robespierre. Gained engineering experience in New York City in 1793. He returned to England in 1799 to mass produce pulley blocks. He patented a tunneling shield in 1818. Tunneling shields protect men digging tunnels. Brunel Sank, an acces ring into earth. The Shield contained worker compartments. He excavated 8-12 feet per week. He Negotiated with Russia For bailout. Brunel leveraged competition with Russia to escape British debtor’s prison. Began digging the Thames tunnel in 1825. Financial trouble struck by 1828. 

Paved Roads 

John McAdam was born in Scotland in America as a prize agent. He returned to Scotland and got involved in road-building. McAdam began experimenting with new roads. He invented the Macadam paved road in 1816. MacAdam is a paved road made up of layers of gravel. 30 feet wide, 3-inch rise towards the center. The stones were crushed manually with hammers. More durable and economic than other kinds. The macadam road spread quickly. They rooted out corruption because they were so quick to build. McAdam’s promoted his design through a book. Books spread ideas rapidly, The first macadam road completed in America in 1823.           

Vapor-Compression Theory

William Cullen experimented with refrigeration in 1755. Ben Franklin investigated vapor cooling in 1758. American inventor Oliver Evans made a breakthrough, he described Vapor-compression refrigeration theory in 1805. Evaporation: Also heat, cools environment, condensing releases heat, warms environment. Electricity performs the work, it creates cold environments, prevents food from spoiling quickly. Evens developed the theory but  didn’t build a device. John Gorrie built one in 1842 for medical purposes. James Harrison built an ice machine for business in 1856. Thaddeus Lowe installed a refrigeration unit on food ships in 189.

Oliver Evans

Oliverer Evans was born in Delaware in 1755. He defused invention to donate repetitive tasks. He built his own mill with his brothers as a “lab” (1783).  He Adopted ancient technology to modern processes. Evans was ahead of his time. Did some of the first work with high-pressure steam engines in America. Opened a foundry that developed liveres metal working experience. Connected to Roloert Fulton steamboat inventor. Evans launched several marketing campaigns. He had a breakthrough whan ha was over a prominent Quaker family. That Mall reveals the massive savings Evan’s system produced. George Washington installed the system at home. Evans published two popular books. 

Percussion Ignition

John Forsyth was born in Scotland in 1769, he became a presbyterion minister. Forsyth enjoyed duck hunting. The shotguns weren’t stealthy enough. Forsyth invented percussion cap ignition in 1807. Percussion ignition relies on vibration. Percussion filled with mercury fulminate. It is channeled into a barrel. Friction creates a small explosion which invites powder. Allowed guns to fire in rain and fired faster. Forsyth opened a gun manufacturing shop. He advertised the benefits of his gun to wealthy sportsmen. Forsyth struggled to stay in business because of patient lawsuits. An American teh system in 1814. Within 30 year in use by the military. 

Canning Process

Nicolas Apport chef was born in 1749. Experimented with preserving different foods. He used glass bottles. He became mivated in 195 by award money. Built a bottling factory in 1810. Can,lid, ring, boiling water. Boiling food kills bacteria. Canning preserves nutritional value of food over time. Process was invented and we understood how it worked. Tin cans replaced glass jars by 1812. Military was the primary market for canned food initially. Sailors and navies also used it. Demand increased as the population expanded. High-quality canned food was sold to the public following the end of wars  

Morphine

Chemistry began as alchemy, Alchemists has formula for secret opium elixirs. The formula was rediscovered in the 1700s. Surtuner apprenticed for a pharmacist, he invented morphine from opium. Morphine comes from purifying opium, it pretends to be an endorphin. Which blocks pain signals. Morphine is one of the most potent pain relievers. It was useful for a variety of problems, it was named after the Greek God of dreams. A famous chemist finally noticed one of them, he did experiments on dogs. Then he tested it on himself and others.

Jacquard Loom

Bastille Bouchon, was the son of an organ maker. They used cam to make the pipes sing (the organ pipes). Bouchon applied the cam patterns to the loom in 1725. Vaucanson improved this design by adding a cylinder. Jacquard combined these previous attempts 50 years later. Jacquard loom automatically produces complex woven patterns. “Programmable” cards create the thread patterns. The loom reduced labor costs and made expensive clothes cheaper. The loom was invented in 1804, but took some time to catch on. Jacquard was handsomely rewarded by Napoleon. Factory owners installed the Jacquard loom.

Inventions and Worldview

Different cultures have different world views. The compass had different effects in different cultures. Their worldviews dictated it’s usage. Their worldviews have five parts:

1. God
2. Man
3. Ethics
4. Judgment
5.  Time

The Egyptians

Everything in the cosmos is connected through Ma’at, most people had to serve the Pharaoh. The rules of Ma’at required people to be social. Judgment: based on how life was lived. Times were cyclical repeating creation and fall, over and over. 

The Chinese

All of the cosmos were connected: “Tao”. People were little copies of the universe. The rules of life weren’t logical. Alchemy was used to altinn “enlightenment” . Their time was cyclical: flowing like a river.  

The Greeks

They believed in tons of gods, the elite would lead the commoners into a better life. The goal was to live a virtuous life, worshiping family gods kept them alive in the afterlife. History was cyclical and time eternal.

Western Worldview

God is separate from his creation. Man was made in the image of God. Man obey God’s Bible-revealed commandments. Christ returns on judgment day. Time and history will and after all Christ enemies are conquered.

Inventions and Patterns

The Eureka Moment

The “ah ha!” moment. John Napier developed a critical mental image. Joseph Priestley investigated bee vats. Edward Jenner noticed that milkmaids don’t get smallpox.

Open to new ideas

Breaking away from established opinions. Vesalius taught human anatomy differently than all other professions, He noticed when Galen’s predictions were wrong. He realized Galen never used a human corpse. Kepler’s breakthrough was trying an ellipse instead of a circle, he assumed others had already tried it. Dr. Mary Schweitzer discovered blood vessels in “fossilized” dinosaur bones. Other scientists simply assumed that was impossible. Their world view prevented them from making it impossible. Their worldview presented them from making this discovery. 

Adversity

The heliocentric theory was resisted by church authority. It contradicted Aristotle’s philosophy. Vesalius’ anatomy contradicted Galen’s anatomy. He was cocked and faced ridiculous arguments from influential authorities. Mar Schweitzer’s discovery was a blessing and a curse. She was shunned initially by her peers. Labor- saving inventions attracted angry mob violence. The resistance and adversity didn’t stop the inventors.

Labor- Saving Devices

Inventions make our labor more efficient. A series of inventions improved fabric production overtime. 

Smallpox Vaccine

“Inoculation” was around since the 1500s in the ottoman Empire. British woman brought the concept to Europe around 1725. Edward Jenner, born in 1749, he noticed something peculiar about milkmaids, Jenner began to vaccinate people with the cowpox virus. “Vaccine” is a cure of a disease. They are generally a weakened version of the actual disease. “Vaccine” comes from the cowpox virus (vaccna- means “from the cow”) Jenner wasn’t the first to make the connection between cowpox and smallpox but no one else made attempts to publicize the knowledge, and Jenner did. He conducted numerous trials to convince the Royal Society. The vaccine was introduced in America in the 1780s. Administered in most nations by 1810.

Voltaic Pile

Vlta was born in Italy in 1745, he was interested in electricity and the writing of Ben Franklin. He invented the Volta pistol. Luigi Galvani made frogs legs twitch. Volta built the pile to refute falvanis theory. The Voltaic pile delivered continuous electric current. Alternating stacks of copper and zinc plates and electrolyte. Batteries have (+) and (-) terminals Electrons flow from (-) to 9 (+). Positive ions accumulate on zinc. Loose electrons recombine with positive ions. Chemical reactions produce the electricity. Volta submitted a paper to the Royal Society. 

Arc Light 

Humphrey Davy was born in England in 1778. He became interested in chemistry and electricity. Davy experimented with laughing gas. Built his own voltaic piles to do experiments. Invented the arc light using very strong batteries. The arc light is extremely bright, an arc jumps between the two rods. Electrons flow through the air when the electric field is strong enough the electricity consumes the carbon rods. The light is bright enough to light up large buildings and streets. It didn’t take off quickly. The advancement of lighthouse technology created a market for the arc light. Limelight was invented in the 1820s. It could be used in lighthouses but how to transport the gas? Genervators by 1875 were built to power the arc light. 

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton was born in England in 1766. He loved education, he became a professor and a private tutor. He was fascinated by meteorology. Devised atomic theory after years of study and experimentation. He founded upon two laws. 1- All matter is made of atoms. 2- Atoms of the same element are the same. 3- Compounds are combinations of multiple elements. 4- Chemical reactions are elements being rearranged. Theory became the new universal language of chemistry. Dalton published his theory in a book (1808) Protected it to his friends in letters. He joined prominent scientific societies. Continued to tutor and teach his theory to others.    

Benjamin Thompson 

Benjamin Thompson was born in Massachusetts, he apprenticed to a local merchant. Began experimenting with heat when he was 16. He was friends with an older guy who accompanied him to Harvard lectures. Thomson joined the side of the British during the Revolutionary war. He experimented with cannons and gunpowder. Thompson refuted the prevailing “caloric” theory of heat. He invented/ improved chimneys, fireplaces, and “Rumford’s soup”. He established the Royal Institution in 1799. He abandoned his first wife and divorced his second.Thompson’s reputation was strong in Britain because of his publishing history. He assisted German royalty. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences made him a member.  His theories on heat transfer stirred controversy. He was named “Count Rumford” in the Holy Roman Empire in 1701 and he was given lots of land.

Gas lighting

William Murdoch worked for James Watt, he erected and repaired Watt’s steam engines. Murdoch experimented with gas. He invented a portable gas lantern. Then he installed gas lighting in his own house. Gas light provides illumination all night long. They require less effort to maintain. Gas companies installed gas lunges throughout cities. The lights lengthened the working day. Murdoch lit the outside Soho Foundry in 1802. Others were trying to launch a gas light industry too. Watt wasn’t interested until word came in about a potential competitor. Free market capitalism provides prompts that lead to market breakthroughs.

William Murdoch

William Murdoch was born in 1754. He received a Scottish presbyterian education. Murdoch walked 300 miles to go to work for James Watt Boulton and Watt recognized Murdoch’s mechanical skills almost immediately. Murdoch’s biggest invention was gas lighting, he improved Watt’s steam engine without much publicity. Murdoch developed a working model of a steam carriage (car). His inventive creativity extended to chemistry. He also invented numerous smaller things. Gas lighting spread rapidly because it wasn’t patented. Murdoch made a lot of wealthy influential friends in the lunar society. He won the Rumford medal in 1808. 

Screw- Cutting Lathe

Screw- cutting lathes had been in early stages of invention in the middle ages. Many were designed, but were not practical. Henry moudslay was a British inventor. He worked for a locksmith and honed his machining skills. Maudslay invented the first successful screw- cutting lathe. The new machine tool cut screws with high precision. Identical gadgets replaced custom made gadgets. Maudslay’s entrepreneurship and marketing helped his machine become successful. He then went into business for himself. Maudslay went into partnership with Burned to make blocks. News of Maudslay’s success spread. His device led to international success.  

Lightning Rod 

The Leyden (leiden) jar was invented in 1744, news spread across the ocean and reached Ben Franklin. Franklin became very interested in electricity by 1746. He noticed static electricity sparks looked like lighting. From this he devised his famous kite experiment. Lighting rods are metal spikes placed on tall buildings. Lighting can develop a billion volts and 300,000 amps. Electric fields become so strong they break down the insulating property of air. Lightning rods work as part of a lighting protection system. Used to protect all kinds of structures. Franklin installed them on public buildings in 1752. Lightning wasn’t well understood though to be evil spirits. They became controversial in the pulpit: thwarting God’s vengeance. In France a court case erupted over a man who installed a lighting rod.

Benjamin Franklin

Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. He wanted to be a sailor but his father wanted him to be a preacher. He became an apprentice instead. Franklin was always a learner; he founded a successful newspaper and became a freemason. Franklin was one of America’s first inventors. His “Franklin Stove” improved heat production efficiency,  and he invented bifocals. His autobiography was one of the most successful of its kind. Franklin became a founding Father, his newspaper increased his fame. So did his inventions. Poor Richard’s Almanck was most influential. It contained proverbs which are still recited today. As an ambassador, he was a model statesman. 

Glass Harmonica

Glasses partially with water can “sing”. Irishman Richard Pockrich popularised the “instrument” in the 1700s. Englishman Edward Deleval refined the instrument. He caught Benjamin Franklin’s attention. Franklin invented the glass harmonica as a variation of the original glass harp. Franklin’s instrument produced a sweet sound. It sat on it’s side and spun using a foot pedal.The instrument sounds “Ethereal” because of how we interpret sound. It wasn’t loud enough to fill an entire hall with sound. The instrument became popular for a while. Thousands had been sold by the time Franklin died (1790). Strange things happened which sent its popularity into decline. Franz Mesmer was a German who developed an idea of “animal Magnetism”. 

Swivel Chair

Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia in 1743.  He got a great education and became a lawyer He took a scientific interest in agriculture and architecture. Heffrson invented lots of small practical devices. Including the swivel chair. Swivel chairs rotate on an axis in circles. Jefferson modified a vulgar sitting chair, Swivel chairs have maneuverability. Wheeled chairs provide convenience. Everybody likes swivel chairs. Franklin didn’t want to write the declaration because he didn’t want his words changed. Jefferson wrote it in his swivel chair. Scientific management focused on work efficiency.            

Parachute

Ideas for parachutes appeared during the Renaissance. Da Vinci drew a working parachute design in 1485. Lois-Sebastien Lenormand invented the first parachute in 1783. He was a French scientist, he was inspired by watching a tight-rope walker. Parachutes slow down your descent to the ground, it is used in numerous applications. Skydiving is a popular sport. In my opinion it is scary you’re plummeting to the GROUND!!! Anyway they are useful as a safety device. The Military uses it for air-dropping into enemy territory. Lenormand coined the word “parachute” in 1785. A balloonist a new model in 1785. It was a safety device for escaping hot-air balloons. Garnerin demonstrated the all-fabric model in 1797. Demonstrations attracted large crowds. Charles Brcadwick built models for the US military in the 1900s.

Selective Breeding

Robert Bakeewell was born in 1725. He grew up on the farm, Bakewell applied his knowledge to his dad’s farm. He noticed something peculiar about the longhorn steer. Selective breeding was his way of raising higher quality animals. Selective breeding produces desirable traits. The breeder must determine what trait to emphasize. Two similar parents need to be matched up.Various breeding techniques are used. Genetic diversity improves animal heath. Bakewell broke with tradition. Bakewell sold his animals at market. He sold purebred animals to other farmers. Bakewell formed a society in 1783 to train other farmers. Bakewell was a successful and a good teacher. 

Electrolysis 

Martin Van marum was born in the 1750s. He took his Groningen education to Haralem, the science center. Marum ran the Teylers museum. In 1784, he designed a large generator, with it he invented electrolysis. Electrolysis breaks compounds into elements. Electric current splits the compounds. Current is the flow of electrons from one point to another. Electrolysis is used to produce hydrogen and oxygen gas, and extract metal from ore. Also used to create methane gas. Van Marum repeatedly demonstrated the process in lectures.  By 1800, other scientists were also using it to discover seven elements. Michael Faraday developed the laws of electrolysis It was used to make metals and compounds through the 1900.

Threshing Machine

Andrew Mikle was born in 1719. His father was an inventor who worked in the mills. Any early version of the threshing machine failed commercially. Meikle fixed their problems. He patented the threshing machine in 1788. Threshing: beating the wheat from the chaff. Meikle’s machine was hand-fed and the size of a piano. It reduced the labor required to harvest wheat grains. Modern machines combine all the harvesting processes. That’s why they are called “combines”. The machine didn’t change too much over the next 100 years. Meikle didn’t get rich on them, others made changes and got around his patent. Like others, the invention drew the ire of angry mobs. The swing Riots in the 1830s destroyed hundreds of threshing machines.  

Soda Water 

Engishmen were making sparkling wine by 1662. Joseph Priestley was a scientist who investigated air, he investigated air in the beer brewery in 1767. The strange air he observed would make water bubbly. He published his discovery of soda water in a paper, soda water is water with carbon dioxide. When drinks are kept under pressure by filling a thin bottle with co2. There are some slight health benefits, crucial to the soft drink market. Mixed drinks with soda water became popular. Priestley used his discovery to enhance his reputation. Schweppe opened a business in 1783 to produce soda water. Darwin’s grandfather helped Schweppes’s business succeed. Acoptiter patented “soda water” in Ireland in 1799. Companies distinguished themselves by offering different flavors of soda. 

Joseph Prienstley

Joseph Priestley was born in England in 1733, he suffered a faith crisis when he was 16. He attended a dissenting university. He taught science and liberal theology for a living. He married into the wealthy Wilkinson family who helped support his scientific dabbling. Priestley invented a new method for producing co2 gas. He discovered oxygen around 1775, He identified the process of photosynthesis. He founded the Unitarian Church in England and America. Priestley’s book on electricity was popular. He extended his influence through teaching and preaching. He engaged in philosophical debates.  

Weighing Scale  

Balances have been used since early in history. The Israelites were given requirements for weight and measurements. Using false weights cheats people. The balance is symbolic of justice. The need for rapid measuring increased as commerce expanded. Scales measure weight, spring scales measure rely on Hooke’s law. F=K X. Spring scales allow you to read weight immediately, this saves time. Salter’s scales were hand-held models. He founded a successful spring company with his nephews. They built bathroom scales in the 1800s. Candle scale built for postal workers.  

Boring machine

The French were suffering from weapon problems, their cannons randomly explode when fired. Their hardness was inconsistent when throughout. A french officer visited John Wilkinson to learn how he made cannons. Wilkinson invented the boring machine in 1774 to build better cannons. Boring machines make holes in solid metal. The machine rotates the barrel being bored. Coolant is applied to keep the metals from melting. The boring machine was extremely. Wilkinson’s boring machine was used to make Watt’s steam engine. Before it, the precision required was impossible to attain. William Wilkinson built a factory in France. The new boring machine used manufactured French cannons, American cannons too.   

Lead Chamber Process

John Roebuck went to med school in Edinburgh, Scotland, He was taught by William Cullen, a prominent Scotsman. He graduated med school and set up practice in Birmingham. He continued nourishing his interest in Chemistry. Roebuck was familiar with the history of sulfuric acid production. Sulfuric acid is important to the modern economy, used for fertilizer,pesticides, dyes, metals. The lead chamber process increased production capability. Roebuck replaced glass jars with lead-lined rooms. Sulfur saltpeter water= sulfuric acid, Roebuck didn’t patent the method. He kept his invention secret. He built a factory in Edinburgh, the lead chambers were as large as a bedroom. Competing factories sprung up in England and in France.

Spinning Jenny

London Society of Arts took notice of growing weaving industry issues.  They offered cash prices in 1760 for new spinning inventions. James Hargreaves, born in 1721 in England. He was a poor uneducated waver. He had a flash of insight that led to the creation of the Spinning Jenny. I spun eleven threads at once in 1764 then over hundred by 1784. Thread production finally caught up to increased cloth production. It was hand-operated. “Jenny” is short for engine. Thread prices fell, and so did clothes prices. Hargreaves built several for his own use. One spinner could now do the job of s hundred. Envious mobs attacked Hargreaves’s house and destroyed his property. He set up shop in another town. Fabric producers understood the Spinning Jenny’s benefits. 

Richard Arkwright

Richard Arkwright was born in 1731 in England. He apprenticed as a barber. About a year after his son was born his wife died, he turned his sorrow into ambition. He turned to wig making in the 1750s and invented waterproof wig dye, then he turned to textile manufacturing and hired John Kay. Arkwright was an important person. He has sometimes been called “The Father Of The Industrial  Revolution”.  Invented the water frame in 1768.  He invented a new carding machine in 1775.  He developed an early factory system in 177os.  He employed children and used steam engines in his mills. Arkwright developed an extensive business network. Factories expanded all over England. Arkwright achieved recognition by the king for his contributions. He left behind a huge fortune in 1792 (he died at 59 years old).

James Watt

James Watt was born in 1736 Scotland to Covenanter parents. He learned to make science kind of instruments and opened his own business. The university of Glasgow offered him work. A friend introduced him to steam power in 1759. He developed his conden around 1763. Watt is primarily associated with the steam engine. He invented the sun-and -planet gear to get around a crank-connecting rod patent. In 1780 he invented a new way of coping documents. He experimented with chemistry but wasn’t as commercially successful. Watt was influential with other inventors. He opened the Soho Foundry, way ahead of its time. Scientific societies honored him. Newcomen engine owners adapted their engines to incorporate Watt’s enhancements.       

 

The Flying Shuttle 

John Kay was born in 1704,he apprenticed in the textile industry.  Then he went into the textile business for himself. He invented a new kind of reed, made from wire, he  then invented the flying shuttle in 1733. The  flying shuttle unleashed fabric production capability, it sped up fabric production. One weaver(instead of two) could produce widecloth. The fling shuttle reduced the skill required. It led to thread shortage. John Kay encountered the forces of envy. HE began manufacturing his new invention,weavers became threatened by the device and tried to drive Kay out of business. Kay was blamed for rising thread prices. He almost went bankrupt defending hs patent against pirates (unsuccessfully)

Marine Chronometer

John Harrison was born in 1693 a carpenter’s son, he became interested in clocks at age. He invented a new temperature compensating pendulum. He gained insights during its design that aided his future work. His chronometer was designed to win the monetary prize. The marine chronometer is a fine crafted precision machine. Immune to: temperature,humidity, pressure, and gravity. It’s time was the reference point for determining longitude. And thanks to marine chronometer sailing accuracy improved greatly. Harrion refined his design for the next 30 years. Parliament was reluctant to award him the prize, Captain James Cook lauded Harrison’s chronometer. They were expensive in italy expensive. The English Navy began requiring each ship to have one in the 1800s.  

Anders Celsius 

Anders Celsius was born in 1701. His grandfather was a famous scientist. He developed stenography in Sweden from his rune discoveries. His uncle olaf was an influential scientist too. Anders entered his father’s university and then became a professor. The centigrade temperature scale was originally backwards, Anders participated in the expeditions to determine the Earth’s shape. He initiated scientific inquiry into the Northern Lights. He founded Uppsala observatory in 1741. His participation in the expedition made him famous. His friend Linnaeus inverted his temperature scale. Celsius published papers and participated in Swedish scientific societies. He wrote a popular math book for children. 

Leyden Jar 

Two scientists invented the Leyden Jar. Kleist’s teacher was Gravesande, a teacher of Newton’s ideas. Kleist theorized that electricity was a fluid,inspired by Hauksbee’s machine. He got a huge shock from a jar he built. Professor musschenbroek perfected it. The Leyden Jar is a battery that stores charge. A glass jar sides coated with metal electrodes inside. It was charged by being connected to an Influence Machine. Touching the electrode discharges it,your hand originally played the role of the foil. Muschenbroek told French scientists about the new invention. He also egan selling them to rich scientists in France. Daniel Gralth of Poland began experimenting with it. He publicized the jar in experiments before other scientists. He wrote a major history book on electricity.